Suppressing the rhamnogalacturonan lyase gene FaRGLyase1 preserves RGI pectin degradation and enhances strawberry fruit firmness.

Plant rhamnogalacturonan lyases (RGLyases) cleave the backbone of rhamnogalacturonan I (RGI), the "hairy" pectin and polymer of the disaccharide rhamnose (Rha)-galacturonic acid (GalA) with arabinan, galactan or arabinogalactan side chains. It has been suggested that RGLyases could participate in remodeling cell walls during fruit softening, but clear evidence has not been reported. To investigate the role of RGLyases in strawberry softening, a genome-wide analysis of RGLyase genes in the genus Fragaria was performed. Seventeen genes encoding RGLyases with functional domains were identified in Fragaria × ananassa. FaRGLyase1 was the most expressed in the ripe receptacle of cv. Chandler. Transgenic strawberry plants expressing an RNAi sequence of FaRGLyase1 were obtained. Three transgenic lines yielded ripe fruits firmer than controls without other fruit quality parameters being significantly affected. The highest increase in firmness achieved was close to 32%. Cell walls were isolated from ripe fruits of two selected lines. The amount of water-soluble and chelated pectins was higher in transgenic lines than in the control. A carbohydrate microarray study showed a higher abundance of RGI epitopes in pectin fractions and in the cellulose-enriched fraction obtained from transgenic lines. Sixty-seven genes were differentially expressed in transgenic ripe fruits when compared with controls. These genes were involved in various physiological processes, including cell wall remodeling, ion homeostasis, lipid metabolism, protein degradation, stress response, and defense. The transcriptomic changes observed in FaRGLyase1 plants suggest that senescence was delayed in transgenic fruits.

CRISPR/Cas9 editing of the polygalacturonase FaPG1 gene improves strawberry fruit firmness.

Firmness is one of the most important fruit quality traits in strawberries. The postharvest shelf life of this soft fruit is highly limited by the loss of firmness, where cell wall disassembly plays an important role. Previous studies demonstrated that the polygalacturonase FaPG1 has a key role in remodelling pectins during strawberry softening. In this study, FaPG1 knockout strawberry plants have been generated using the CRISPR/Cas9 system delivered via Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Ten independent lines, cv. "Chandler", were obtained, and all of them were successfully edited as determined by PCR amplification and T7 endonuclease assay. The targeted mutagenesis insertion and deletion rates were analyzed using targeted deep sequencing. The percentage of edited sequences varied from 47% up to almost 100%, being higher than 95% for seven of the selected lines. Phenotypic analyses showed that 7 out of the eight lines analyzed produced fruits significantly firmer than the control, ranging from 33 to 70% increase in firmness. There was a positive relationship between the degree of FaPG1 editing and the rise in fruit firmness. Minor changes were observed in other fruit quality traits, such as colour, soluble solids, titratable acidity or anthocyanin content. Edited fruits showed a reduced softening rate during postharvest, displayed a reduced transpirational water loss, and were less damaged by Botrytis cinerea inoculation. The analysis of four potential off-target sites revealed no mutation events. In conclusion, editing the FaPG1 gene using the CRISPR/Cas9 system is an efficient method for improving strawberry fruit firmness and shelf life.

Elucidating the role of polygalacturonase genes in strawberry fruit softening.

To disentangle the role of polygalacturonase (PG) genes in strawberry softening, the two PG genes most expressed in ripe receptacles, FaPG1 and FaPG2, were down-regulated. Transgenic ripe fruits were firmer than those of the wild type when PG genes were silenced individually. Simultaneous silencing of both PG genes by transgene stacking did not result in an additional increase in firmness. Cell walls from ripe fruits were characterized by a carbohydrate microarray. Higher signals of homogalacturonan and rhamnogalacturonan I pectin epitopes in polysaccharide fractions tightly bound to the cell wall were observed in the transgenic genotypes, suggesting a lower pectin solubilization. At the transcriptomic level, the suppression of FaPG1 or FaPG2 alone induced few transcriptomic changes in the ripe receptacle, but the amount of differentially expressed genes increased notably when both genes were silenced. Many genes encoding cell wall-modifying enzymes were down-regulated. The expression of a putative high affinity potassium transporter was induced in all transgenic genotypes, indicating that cell wall weakening and loss of cell turgor could be linked. These results suggest that, besides the disassembly of pectins tightly linked to the cell wall, PGs could play other roles in strawberry softening, such as the release of oligogalacturonides exerting a positive feedback in softening.

Exploring the Use of Fruit Callus Culture as a Model System to Study Color Development and Cell Wall Remodeling during Strawberry Fruit Ripening.

Cell cultures derived from strawberry fruit at different developmental stages have been obtained to evaluate their potential use to study different aspects of strawberry ripening. Callus from leaf and cortical tissue of unripe-green, white, and mature-red strawberry fruits were induced in a medium supplemented with 11.3 µM 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) under darkness. The transfer of the established callus from darkness to light induced the production of anthocyanin. The replacement of 2,4-D by abscisic acid (ABA) noticeably increased anthocyanin accumulation in green-fruit callus. Cell walls were isolated from the different fruit cell lines and from fruit receptacles at equivalent developmental stages and sequentially fractionated to obtain fractions enriched in soluble pectins, ester bound pectins, xyloglucans (XG), and matrix glycans tightly associated with cellulose microfibrils. These fractions were analyzed by cell wall carbohydrate microarrays. In fruit receptacle samples, pectins were abundant in all fractions, including those enriched in matrix glycans. The amount of pectin increased from green to white stage, and later these carbohydrates were solubilized in red fruit. Apparently, XG content was similar in white and red fruit, but the proportion of galactosylated XG increased in red fruit. Cell wall fractions from callus cultures were enriched in extensin and displayed a minor amount of pectins. Stronger signals of extensin Abs were detected in sodium carbonate fraction, suggesting that these proteins could be linked to pectins. Overall, the results obtained suggest that fruit cell lines could be used to analyze hormonal regulation of color development in strawberry but that the cell wall remodeling process associated with fruit softening might be masked by the high presence of extensin in callus cultures.

Manipulation of ß-carotene levels in tomato fruits results in increased ABA content and extended shelf life.

Tomato fruit ripening is controlled by the hormone ethylene and by a group of transcription factors, acting upstream of ethylene. During ripening, the linear carotene lycopene accumulates at the expense of cyclic carotenoids. Fruit-specific overexpression of LYCOPENE ß-CYCLASE (LCYb) resulted in increased ß-carotene (provitamin A) content. Unexpectedly, LCYb-overexpressing fruits also exhibited a diverse array of ripening phenotypes, including delayed softening and extended shelf life. These phenotypes were accompanied, at the biochemical level, by an increase in abscisic acid (ABA) content, decreased ethylene production, increased density of cell wall material containing linear pectins with a low degree of methylation, and a thicker cuticle with a higher content of cutin monomers and triterpenoids. The levels of several primary metabolites and phenylpropanoid compounds were also altered in the transgenic fruits, which could be attributed to delayed fruit ripening and/or to ABA. Network correlation analysis and pharmacological experiments with the ABA biosynthesis inhibitor, abamine, indicated that altered ABA levels were a direct effect of the increased ß-carotene content and were in turn responsible for the extended shelf life phenotype. Thus, manipulation of ß-carotene levels results in an improvement not only of the nutritional value of tomato fruits, but also of their shelf life.

Genome-Wide SNP discovery and genomic characterization in avocado (Persea americana Mill.).

Modern crop breeding is based on the use of genetically and phenotypically diverse plant material and, consequently, a proper understanding of population structure and genetic diversity is essential for the effective development of breeding programs. An example is avocado, a woody perennial fruit crop native to Mesoamerica with an increasing popularity worldwide. Despite its commercial success, there are important gaps in the molecular tools available to support on-going avocado breeding programs. In order to fill this gap, in this study, an avocado 'Hass' draft assembly was developed and used as reference to study 71 avocado accessions which represent the three traditionally recognized avocado horticultural races or subspecies (Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian). An average of 5.72 M reads per individual and a total of 7,108 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers were produced for the 71 accessions analyzed. These molecular markers were used in a study of genetic diversity and population structure. The results broadly separate the accessions studied according to their botanical race in four main groups: Mexican, Guatemalan, West Indian and an additional group of Guatemalan × Mexican hybrids. The high number of SNP markers developed in this study will be a useful genomic resource for the avocado community.

Rosellinia necatrix infection induces differential gene expression between tolerant and susceptible avocado rootstocks.

Rosellinia necatrix is the causal agent of avocado white root rot (WRR). Control of this soil-borne disease is difficult, and the use of tolerant rootstocks may present an effective method to lessen its impact. To date, no studies on the molecular mechanisms regulating the avocado plant response towards this pathogen have been undertaken. To shed light on the mechanisms underpinning disease susceptibility and tolerance, molecular analysis of the gene's response in two avocado rootstocks with a contrasting disease reaction was assessed. Gene expression profiles against R. necatrix were carried out in the susceptible 'Dusa' and the tolerant selection BG83 avocado genotypes by micro-array analysis. In 'Dusa', the early response was mainly related to redox processes and cell-wall degradation activities, all becoming enhanced after disease progression affected photosynthetic capacity, whereas tolerance to R. necatrix in BG83 relied on the induction of protease inhibitors and their negative regulators, as well as genes related to tolerance to salt and osmotic stress such as aspartic peptidase domain-containing proteins and gdsl esterase lipase proteins. In addition, three protease inhibitors were identified, glu protease, trypsin and endopeptidase inhibitors, which were highly overexpressed in the tolerant genotype when compared to susceptible 'Dusa', after infection with R. necatrix, reaching fold change values of 52, 19 and 38, respectively. The contrasting results between 'Dusa' and BG83 provide new insights into the different mechanisms involved in avocado tolerance to Phytophthora cinnamomi and R. necatrix, which are consistent with their biotrophic and necrotrophic lifestyles, respectively. The differential induction of genes involved in salt and osmotic stress in BG83 could indicate that R. necatrix penetration into the roots is associated with osmotic effects, suggesting that BG83's tolerance to R. necatrix is related to the ability to withstand osmotic imbalance. In addition, the high expression of protease inhibitors in tolerant BG83 compared to susceptible 'Dusa' after infection with the pathogen suggests the important role that these proteins may play in the defence of avocado rootstocks against R. necatrix.

Caracterización de indicadores de la calidad del fruto en líneas de fresa transgénicas con genes silenciados que codifican para enzimas pectinolíticas / Characterization of quality traits in transgenic strawberry fruits with genes encoding pectinolytic enzymes down-regulated

RESUMEN Se han evaluado algunos indicadores de calidad del fruto en líneas transgénicas de fresa con los genes de poligalacturonasa FaPGI (líneas PG) o pectato liasa FaplC (líneas APEL) silenciados. Se analizaron dos líneas independientes por genotipo transgénico. No se observaron diferencias en el contenido de sólidos solubles entre las líneas transgénicas y el control. De igual forma, la acidez total y el pH fueron similares en las líneas PG29, APEL21 y el control; sin embargo, la acidez de los frutos de las líneas PG62 y APEL39 fue superior al control. Los parámetros de color L*, a* y b* fueron similares en todos los genotipos; sin embargo, el contenido en antocianos fue menor en la línea APEL21. Los valores más altos de firmeza de fruto, estimada mediante un ensayo de extrusión, se observaron en las dos líneas transgénicas PG y en la línea APEL39. En cuanto a las pérdidas por goteo (drip loss), la línea APEL39 presentó un valor mayor que el control, pero la línea APEL21 registró valores menores. El contenido de compuestos fenólicos se analizó en la línea PG29, no encontrándose diferencias estadísticas con respecto al control. Finalmente, la capacidad del fruto para captar radicales libres fue ligeramente menor en la línea PG29 que en el control. Los resultados indican que el silenciamiento de los genes de pectinasas incrementa significativamente la firmeza de la fresa sin modificar sustancialmente parámetros de calidad del fruto maduro como color, acidez, sólidos solubles o contenido en antocianos.

ABSTRACT Some quality traits of transgenic strawberry fruits with low levels of expression of the pectinase genes FaPGI (PG lines) or FaplC gene (APEL lines) were evaluated. Two independent lines per transgenic genotype were analyzed. Soluble solids were similar in control and transgenic lines. Similarly, pH and titratable acidity was similar in lines PG29, APEL21 and control; however, lines PG62 and APEL39 showed acidity values higher than the control. The color parameters L*, a* and b* were similar in control and transgenic fruits; however, line APEL21 displayed a lower value of anthocyanin content. The highest values of fruit firmness, measured with an extrusion test, were observed in both PG transgenic lines and in the APEL39 line. Regarding the drip loss, APEL39 line showed a higher value than the control, but the APEL21 line displayed lower values. The content of phenolic compounds was analyzed in line PG29, not observing significant differences with the control. Finally, the antiradical activity of the fruit was slightly lower in the line PG29 than in the control. The results obtained indicate that the silencing of the pectinase genes increases the firmness of the fruit without substantially modifying other quality parameters such as color, acidity, soluble solids or anthocyanin content.

The evolution of hydrophobic cell wall biopolymers: from algae to angiosperms.

The transition from an aquatic ancestral condition to a terrestrial environment exposed the first land plants to the desiccating effects of air and potentially large fluctuations in temperature and light intensity. To be successful, this transition necessitated metabolic, physiological, and morphological modifications, among which one of the most important was the capacity to synthesize hydrophobic extracellular biopolymers such as those found in the cuticular membrane, suberin, lignin, and sporopollenin, which collectively reduce the loss of water, provide barriers to pathogens, protect against harmful levels of UV radiation, and rigidify targeted cell walls. Here, we review phylogenetic and molecular data from extant members of the green plant clade (Chlorobionta) and show that the capacity to synthesize the monomeric precursors of all four biopolymers is ancestral and extends in some cases to unicellular plants (e.g. Chlamydomonas). We also review evidence from extant algae, bryophytes, and early-divergent tracheophytes and show that gene duplication, subsequent neo-functionalization, and the co-option of fundamental and ancestral metabolic pathways contributed to the early evolutionary success of the land plants.

Structural changes in cell wall pectins during strawberry fruit development.

Strawberry (Fragaria × anannasa Duch.) is one of the most important soft fruit. Rapid loss of firmness occurs during the ripening process, resulting in a short shelf life and high economic losses. To get insight into the role of pectin matrix in the softening process, cell walls from strawberry fruit at two developmental stages, unripe-green and ripe-red, were extracted and sequentially fractionated with different solvents to obtain fractions enriched in a specific component. The yield of cell wall material as well as the per fresh weight contents of the different fractions decreased in ripe fruit. The largest reduction was observed in the pectic fractions extracted with a chelating agent (trans-1,2- diaminocyclohexane-N,N,N'N'-tetraacetic acid, CDTA fraction) and those covalently bound to the wall (extracted with Na2CO3). Uronic acid content of these two fractions also decreased significantly during ripening, but the amount of soluble pectins extracted with phenol:acetic acid:water (PAW) and water increased in ripe fruit. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of the different fractions showed that the degree of esterification decreased in CDTA pectins but increased in soluble fractions at ripen stage. The chromatographic analysis of pectin fractions by gel filtration revealed that CDTA, water and, mainly PAW polyuronides were depolymerised in ripe fruit. By contrast, the size of Na2CO3 pectins was not modified. The nanostructural characteristics of CDTA and Na2CO3 pectins were analysed by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Isolated pectic chains present in the CDTA fractions were significantly longer and more branched in samples from green fruit than those from red fruit. No differences in contour length were observed in Na2CO3 strands between samples of both stages. However, the percentage of branched chains decreased from 19.7% in unripe samples to 3.4% in ripe fruit. The number of pectin aggregates was higher in green fruit samples of both fractions. These results show that the nanostructural complexity of pectins present in CDTA and Na2CO3 fractions diminishes during fruit development, and this correlates with the solubilisation of pectins and the softening of the fruit.

Unravelling the nanostructure of strawberry fruit pectins by endo-polygalacturonase digestion and atomic force microscopy.

Pectins analysed by AFM are visualized as individual chains, branched or unbranched, and aggregates. To investigate the nature of these structures, sodium carbonate soluble pectins from strawberry fruits were digested with endo-polygalacturonase M2 from Aspergillus aculeatus and visualized by AFM. A gradual decrease in the length of chains was observed as result of the treatment, reaching a minimum LN value of 22nm. The branches were not visible after 2h of enzymatic incubation. The size of complexes also diminished significantly with the enzymatic digestion. A treatment to hydrolyse rhamnogalacturonan II borate diester bonds neither affected chains length or branching nor complex size but reduced the density of aggregates. These results suggest that chains are formed by a mixture of homogalacturonan and more complex molecules composed by a homogalacturonan unit linked to an endo-PG resistant unit. Homogalacturonan is a structural component of the complexes and rhamnogalacturonan II could be involved in their formation.

Efficacy of hydrodynamic interleukin 10 gene transfer in human liver segments with interest in transplantation.

Different diseases lead, during their advanced stages, to chronic or acute liver failure, whose unique treatment consists in organ transplantation. The success of intervention is limited by host immune response and graft rejection. The use of immunosuppressant drugs generally improve organ transplantation, but they cannot completely solve the problem. Also, their management is delicate, especially during the early stages of treatment. Thus, new tools to set an efficient modulation of immune response are required. The local expression of interleukin (IL) 10 protein in transplanted livers mediated by hydrodynamic gene transfer could improve the organ acceptance by the host because it presents the natural ability to modulate the immune response at different levels. In the organ transplantation scenario, IL10 has already demonstrated positive effects on graft tolerance. Hydrodynamic gene transfer has been proven to be safe and therapeutically efficient in animal models and could be easily moved to the clinic. In the present work, we evaluated efficacy of human IL10 gene transfer in human liver segments and the tissue natural barriers for gene entry into the cell, employing gold nanoparticles. In conclusion, the present work shows for the first time that hydrodynamic IL10 gene transfer to human liver segments ex vivo efficiently delivers a human gene into the cells. Indexes of tissue protein expression achieved could mediate local pharmacological effects with interest in controlling the immune response triggered after liver transplantation. On the other hand, the ultrastructural study suggests that the solubilized plasmid could access the hepatocyte in a passive manner mediated by the hydric flow and that an active mechanism of transportation could facilitate its entry into the nucleus. Liver Transplantation 23:50-62 2017 AASLD.

Laser microdissection of tomato fruit cell and tissue types for transcriptome profiling.

This protocol enables transcriptome profiling of specific cell or tissue types that are isolated from tomato using laser microdissection (LM). To prepare tissue for LM, fruit samples are first fixed in optimal cutting temperature (OCT) medium and frozen in molds. The tissue is then sectioned using a cryostat before being dissected using an LM instrument. The RNAs contained in the harvested cells are purified and subjected to two rounds of amplification to yield sufficient quantities of RNA to generate cDNA libraries. Unlike several other techniques that are used to isolate specific cell types, LM has the advantage of being readily applied to any plant species without having to generate transgenic plants. Using the protocols described here, LM-mediated cell-type transcriptomic analysis of two samples requires ∼8 d from tissue harvest to RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), whereas each additional sample, up to a total of 12 samples, requires ∼1 additional day for the LM step. RNA obtained using this method has been successfully used for deep-coverage transcriptome profiling, which is a particularly effective strategy for identifying genes that are differentially expressed between cell or tissue types.

Analysis of the tomato leaf transcriptome during successive hemibiotrophic stages of a compatible interaction with the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora infestans.

The infection of plants by hemibiotrophic pathogens involves a complex and highly regulated transition from an initial biotrophic, asymptomatic stage to a later necrotrophic state, characterized by cell death. Little is known about how this transition is regulated, and there are conflicting views regarding the significance of the plant hormones jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) in the different phases of infection. To provide a broad view of the hemibiotrophic infection process from the plant perspective, we surveyed the transcriptome of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) during a compatible interaction with the hemibiotrophic oomycete Phytophthora infestans during three infection stages: biotrophic, the transition from biotrophy to necrotrophy, and the necrotrophic phase. Nearly 10 000 genes corresponding to proteins in approximately 400 biochemical pathways showed differential transcript abundance during the three infection stages, revealing a major reorganization of plant metabolism, including major changes in source-sink relations, as well as secondary metabolites. In addition, more than 100 putative resistance genes and pattern recognition receptor genes were induced, and both JA and SA levels and associated signalling pathways showed dynamic changes during the infection time course. The biotrophic phase was characterized by the induction of many defence systems, which were either insufficient, evaded or suppressed by the pathogen.

Transcriptional dynamics of Phytophthora infestans during sequential stages of hemibiotrophic infection of tomato.

Hemibiotrophic plant pathogens, such as the oomycete Phytophthora infestans, employ a biphasic infection strategy, initially behaving as biotrophs, where minimal symptoms are exhibited by the plant, and subsequently as necrotrophs, feeding on dead plant tissue. The regulation of this transition and the breadth of molecular mechanisms that modulate plant defences are not well understood, although effector proteins secreted by the pathogen are thought to play a key role. We examined the transcriptional dynamics of P. infestans in a compatible interaction with its host tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) at three infection stages: biotrophy; the transition from biotrophy to necrotrophy; and necrotrophy. The expression data suggest a tight temporal regulation of many pathways associated with the suppression of plant defence mechanisms and pathogenicity, including the induction of putative cytoplasmic and apoplastic effectors. Twelve of these were experimentally evaluated to determine their ability to suppress necrosis caused by the P. infestans necrosis-inducing protein PiNPP1.1 in Nicotiana benthamiana. Four effectors suppressed necrosis, suggesting that they might prolong the biotrophic phase. This study suggests that a complex regulation of effector expression modulates the outcome of the interaction.

Solid-State (13)C NMR Delineates the Architectural Design of Biopolymers in Native and Genetically Altered Tomato Fruit Cuticles.

Plant cuticles on outer fruit and leaf surfaces are natural macromolecular composites of waxes and polyesters that ensure mechanical integrity and mitigate environmental challenges. They also provide renewable raw materials for cosmetics, packaging, and coatings. To delineate the structural framework and flexibility underlying the versatile functions of cutin biopolymers associated with polysaccharide-rich cell-wall matrices, solid-state NMR spectra and spin relaxation times were measured in a tomato fruit model system, including different developmental stages and surface phenotypes. The hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance of the cutin ensures compatibility with the underlying polysaccharide cell walls; the hydroxy fatty acid structures of outer epidermal cutin also support deposition of hydrophobic waxes and aromatic moieties while promoting the formation of cell-wall cross-links that rigidify and strengthen the cuticle composite during fruit development. Fruit cutin-deficient tomato mutants with compromised microbial resistance exhibit less efficient local and collective biopolymer motions, stiffening their cuticular surfaces and increasing their susceptibility to fracture.

Orman's Internet Addiction Survey: a Preliminary Psychometric Study in an Universitary Andalusian Sample / Encuesta sobre adicción al internet de Orman: Un estudio psicométrico preliminar en una muestra universitaria de Andalucía

In recent decades several instruments have been developed to assess the behaviour of being continuously connected to Internet shown by some Internet users. The Internet Addiction Survey by Mc. Orman is one of them. Its psychometric properties are analysed in this article, using an incidental sample of university students. The results showed a satisfactory level of reliability and a one-dimensional underlying structure, with high correlation values with other instruments used for the same purpose. Its use is recommended in the study of Internet addiction.

En las últimas décadas se han desarrollado diversos instrumentos para medir el comportamiento de estar continuamente conectado a Internet, presentado por algunos usuarios. En este artículo se analizan sus características psicométricas a partir de una muestra incidental de estudiantes universitarios. Los resultados muestran una fiabilidad satisfactoria y una estructura latente unidimensional, presentando valores de correlación altos con otros instrumentos utilizados con el mismo fin. Se sugiere su utilización para el estudio de la Adicción a Internet.

The tomato SlSHINE3 transcription factor regulates fruit cuticle formation and epidermal patterning.

Fleshy tomato fruit typically lacks stomata; therefore, a proper cuticle is particularly vital for fruit development and interaction with the surroundings. Here, we characterized the tomato SlSHINE3 (SlSHN3) transcription factor to extend our limited knowledge regarding the regulation of cuticle formation in fleshy fruits. We created SlSHN3 overexpressing and silenced plants, and used them for detailed analysis of cuticular lipid compositions, phenotypic characterization, and the study on the mode of SlSHN3 action. Heterologous expression of SlSHN3 in Arabidopsis phenocopied overexpression of the Arabidopsis SHNs. Silencing of SlSHN3 results in profound morphological alterations of the fruit epidermis and significant reduction in cuticular lipids. We demonstrated that SlSHN3 activity is mediated by control of genes associated with cutin metabolism and epidermal cell patterning. As with SlSHN3 RNAi lines, mutation in the SlSHN3 target gene, SlCYP86A69, resulted in severe cutin deficiency and altered fruit surface architecture. In vitro activity assays demonstrated that SlCYP86A69 possesses NADPH-dependent ω-hydroxylation activity, particularly of C18:1 fatty acid to the 18-hydroxyoleic acid cutin monomer. This study provided insights into transcriptional mechanisms mediating fleshy fruit cuticle formation and highlighted the link between cutin metabolism and the process of fruit epidermal cell patterning.

The identification of cutin synthase: formation of the plant polyester cutin.

A hydrophobic cuticle consisting of waxes and the polyester cutin covers the aerial epidermis of all land plants, providing essential protection from desiccation and other stresses. We have determined the enzymatic basis of cutin polymerization through characterization of a tomato extracellular acyltransferase, CD1, and its substrate, 2-mono(10,16-dihydroxyhexadecanoyl)glycerol. CD1 has in vitro polyester synthesis activity and is required for cutin accumulation in vivo, indicating that it is a cutin synthase.